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Urban
Rural Continuum
In countries undergoing rapid urbanization, cities have a major
impact on their surrounding rural hinterland. The social, economic
and environmental transformations are irreversible, as urbanisation
engenders often dramatic changes in production and consumption patterns,
in the use of energy, land and water, and in the generation of waste
and pollution. The practices featured below present examples of
how a wide range of cities and communities are dealing with different
aspects of the urban-rural continuum. They range from urban agriculture
and the management of land and water resources, to the critical
issue of preventing urban sprawl and finding effective institutional
arrangements for inter-jurisdictional cooperation and strategic
planning.
Urban Agriculture Programme, Rosario, Santa Fe, Argentina
In 2001, Argentina was in turmoil as public anger over a deepening
recession and widespread poverty sparked riots, looting, vandalism,
and angry protests. Rosario City, population 906,004 located in
the Santa Fe province was no exception. This was a culmination of
two decades of gradual economic decline which left many people unemployed.
Consequently, the peri-urban zone was characterised by irregular
settlements, inhabited by unemployed families and migrants from
the northern provinces of the country. The Urban Agriculture Programme
(UAP) was initiated after the economic crisis, which manifested
itself in Rosario with poverty levels rising to 60 % of the population.
The programme was initiated to respond to this situation by providing
sustainable means of food production in urban centres for a population
whose poverty line is US$ 90. The objective was to promote a constructive
process of endogenous development, with participatory strategies
and co-operative forms of production, transformation, commercialisation,
as well as healthy food consumption.
The impact of the programme has been to make low income families
feel valued and recognised as actors forming part of an inclusive
process (especially women). So far 791 community gardens have been
established and this has led to the improvement of the urban neighbourhood
landscape as well as the quality of life of its inhabitants. Currently,
more than 10,000 families are directly linked to the production
of organic vegetables, which are consumed by 40,000 people. This
has been possible through the creation of an economy of solidarity
network that includes 342 productive groups. Each group participates
weekly in three of the locally established fairs, deriving a monthly
income ranging between US$ 40 and US$ 150.
The produce from the community gardens has a high social value in
terms of quality. One example has been the development of a production
plan to supply soup kitchens and schools within the framework of
a common social network. The poor now have access to secure tenure
on the land that the community gardens occupy. This has been possible
through the institutionalisation of urban agriculture (UA) as a
local government public policy. The latter was instituted through
Ordinance HCD 7341/02 of Rosario's Deliberative Town Council and
Decree of the Secretary of Social Promotion N° 808/03 while
the use of lands for the AU is regulated by Ordinance N° 4713/89
and 7341/02. The market fairs are regulated by the Ordinance N°
7358/02 of the Deliberative Town Council.
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Integrated Safe Water Supply, Changshu, Jiangsu Province, China
Located in Southeast of Jiangsu Province as a regional hub of the
Yangtze Delta, Changshu has a total area of 1,142km2, a resident
population of 1.03 million and a population of 300,000 from other
places. It has an urban built-up area of 60km2 with a population
of 315,000. There are 12 towns under its administration. Changshu
has been long acclaimed as a land of honey and milk mainly for its
highly developed agriculture. The city boasts a diversified industrial
structure with textile, light industry, food processing, metallurgy,
machinery, electronic and chemical industry, building materials
etc. as the mainstay. The tertiary industry is making its dramatic
development in the past 20 years, featuring a booming of tourist
industry, wholesale and retail industry as well as other service
sectors. The city’s gross domestic product in 2003 was RMB
47.6 billion or per capita US$5,500.
Situated in a confluence of rivers, water pollution began to be
a serious problem with the rapid advance of industrialization and
urbanization. By the early 1980s, Changshu was witnessing critical
shortages of source water and poor quality of drinking water. Increasing
demand for domestic water led to the mass use of deep well water
of poor quality (mainly extra minerals content) and seriously affected
health of both urban and rural inhabitants. This situation became
so severe and finally brought about the implementation of No. 3
Water Supply Plant in 1997. The plant, representing an investment
of 300 million RMB (US$ 36 million), uses the Yangtze River as its
source and provides 700,000 city dwellers with clean and pure water.
In order to extend safe drinking water supply to the whole city,
including surrounding rural areas, No. 3 Water Supply Plant was
expanded in 2000. Health conditions of Changshu citizens have been
greatly improved and the number of patients suffering from water
borne diseases has declined by over 80 percent.
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Liveable Region Strategic Plan (LRSP) for the Greater Vancouver
Regional District, Canada
The Greater Vancouver Regional District (GVRD) is a partnership
of 21 municipalities and one electoral area that make up the metropolitan
area of Greater Vancouver. The Greater Vancouver Regional District
had been experiencing population growth from 750,000 in 1980 to
2,030,000 in 2002 increasing pressure on greenspace, traffic congestion
and resulting in declining air quality. There was a lack of vision
and no coordination of development actions within the region.
The 21 member municipalities of the Greater Vancouver region brought
various stakeholders together in a series of workshops to develop
the Livable Region Strategic Plan (LRSP). The Livable Region Strategic
Plan (LRSP) is Greater Vancouver's regional growth strategy and
is used by all levels of government as the framework for making
regional land use and transportation decisions. Other agencies,
the private sector and residents also use the plan in order to understand
and contribute to Greater Vancouver's vision for its future development.
The plan focuses on the creation of a Green Zone as an effective
urban containment area while protecting the region's ecology, health
and agriculture.
The LRSP provides the framework for making regional land use and
transportation decisions in partnership with the GVRD's 21 member
municipalities, the provincial government and other agencies guided
by a shared vision. Urban centres were identified and have been
successful in containing development efforts within a concentrated
urban area while establishing diverse and more complete communities.
The plan led to the establishment of a regionally controlled and
operated transit authority (Greater Vancouver Regional Transit Authority)
from the previous provincial entities. These initiatives have enhanced
the region's social, economic and environmental health. Implementation
of the plan is integrated into the budgets of the member municipalities
through their official community plans.
As a result of this initiative, the protected green zone has increased
by approximately 60,000 hectares since 1991. Air quality improvements
have been significant as a result of reductions in emissions from
industry and vehicles.
A key contributing factor to the success has been the formulation
of a shared vision that guides the development. The LSRP proves
that this can lead to large scale impacts on the structure and characteristics
of a region. It also shows that partnership between spheres of government
and communities is achieving tangible results. What makes the Greater
Vancouver Regional District stand out as compared to comparable
practices is the scale of its coordinated effort. Vancouver demonstrates
that sustainable development is a planning concept that benefits
development and the environment.
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Maweni Squatters Resettlement Programme, Kenya
Voi is located in the “lowland” part of Kenya, which
presents environmental and development challenges. The rainy seasons,
relating to the South-Eastern monsoon, last from March to May and
October to December with violent storms being common. The natural
vegetation cover ranges from dry bush with trees, to scattered trees
and open grassland. The area harbours various species of anopheles,
the mosquito that spreads malaria, as well as the tsetse fly.
The Maweni (meaning rocky area in Kiswahili) Development Group was
established on 14 June 1993 with the objective of acquiring land
on an individual title deed basis. The strategy was to mobilize
resources from members of the Group.
The goal of the Maweni Development Group was to identify suitable
land and facilitate provision of low-cost housing to the informal
settlement dwellers (squatters). This involved organizing the residents
into a group and the establishment of a management system and means
of control of the initiative, including the setting of building
standards. To realize this objective an application had to be made
for land from the Government of Kenya. In turn, the land would need
to be planned, surveyed, demarcated and title deeds issued to the
members. Part Development Plans were prepared in 1997 by the District
Physical Planning Officer. Cadastral Surveys had also been prepared;
media advertisements as per Physical Planning Act 1996 were effected
on 10 August 2000. The letters of allotment have been issued. In
the mean time, the members of the Group have mobilised their own
resources to improve the housing and settlement conditions, are
engaging in income-generating activities, have developed new ways
of improving housing affordability and of obtaining housing finance,
and are re-defining decision-making processes.
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An Integrated Development Project in the Greater Mafikeng
Area, South Africa
Mafikeng, situated 300 km to the west of Johannesburg, has a population
of over 250,000. Greater Mafikeng is comprised of Mafikeng and the
peri-urban tribal area. This area is divided by the Molopo River
from east to west. To the south, out of the municipal area, is the
tribal area where, people live in deprived conditions: lack of access
to safe water and sanitation; poor roads and drainage; and other
basic infrastructure and services. North of the river is Mafikeng,
with more formally established communities with better services
and facilities, which have all the same been neglected.
The Mafikeng Development Programme was initiated in 1995 with an
aim of coordinating a wide spectrum of social, economic and environmental
projects in the Greater Mafikeng Area within one comprehensive plan.
Tourism was identified as the driving force to improve the river
corridor and the city in general, which in turn will improve the
living conditions of the people by providing them with basic necessities
and employment.
The first step towards empowering those previously oppressed under
the apartheid system was the establishment of a broad-based Steering
Committee comprised of very different administrative systems: Tribal
Authorities, City Council, Government Departments, the informal
sector, local businesses and the tourism industry. The programme
focuses on training and building local capacity through the integrated
development of several programmes: city and river clean up; clean
water provision; improved storm water facilities; improved traffic
flows; and enterprise and tourism development. Where practical,
all public works contracts were divided into smaller components
to involve as many new emerging contractors as possible. Where established
contractors were required, labour intensive methods were encouraged
and favoured. The Steering Committee has emerged not only as the
forum of economic development for the area, but its conflict resolution
role is helping repair the social fabric of the entire community.
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The Sustainable Indigenous Peoples Agricultural Technology (SIPAT),
Philippines
Philippines has a population of over 80 million people with a GNI
per capita of US$ 1,030 (World Bank, 2002). In the early 1980’s,
the town of Kalinga, situated in Northern Philippines experienced
serious environmental challenges. Traditional knowledge and indigenous
knowledge systems disappeared and this bought about poverty and
endangered mountain biodiversity.
SIPAT addresses the problems of poverty, cultural and biodiversity
loss among the indigenous communities farming the ancient rice terrace
of Northern Philippines. The main objectives of SIPAT were to advocate
for the reversal termination of the environmentally destructive
projects in Kalinga. Others were to promote Indigenous Peoples Rights
Act and to assist, organize and empower the indigenous peoples.
The organization used people-to-people and communities-to-communities’
mobilization strategies to support their activities. The principles
of asset-based community development were applied. The organization
also used an Indigenous Peoples Way of Management and Decision-Making
(AMUNG) in organizational management and programs and services delivery.
AMUNG enhanced active involvement, active participation and multi-partnership
in program/project implementation. AMUNG enhanced gender sensitivity
and promoted high involvement of women and youth in decision-making
and management. AMUNG also promoted a strong sense of ownership
among stakeholders.
Achievements have included, 81% of the forest in Kalinga being protected,
conserved and maintained. 108 watersheds were managed, conserved
and protected and 27 hectares of rice terraces newly created &
126 hectares rehabilitated. From 1990-1996 a total of 7 indigenous
communities with 1,071 households were assisted, increased their
production by 27% and ensured their food security. From 1997-2002,
three poorest-of-the poor indigenous communities were assisted with
324 households that increased their production by 36%. From 2002-2003,
154 households assisted that increased their production by 45%.
The organization gained the support from multi-sectoral partners
involving nine local government units, three networks of non-governmental
organizations and national development programs. The organization
has successfully engaged in advocacy that led to the termination
of two environmentally destructive projects, and the passage of
progressive legislation such as the indigenous People’s Rights
Act and the creation of the Banawe Rice Terraces Commission.
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Women's Contribution in Sustainable Rural Development, Lebanon
Lebanon is located in the Middle East, bordering the Mediterranean
Sea, between Israel and Syria covering 10,400 square kilometres.
Deir El Ahmar, with a population of 550,000, is part of the Bekaa
valley. People in this area face myriad economic hardships where
per capita income is US$ 50 per month and the immigration level
is very high.
In 1991, a group of women voluntarily got together to establish
an NGO (WADA) aiming at sustainable rural development, through economic,
financial and political empowerment. The objectives of the NGO included
building the capacity of rural women to launch awareness programmes
in environmental management, healthcare and eco-tourism. The municipality
provided them with 1.5 hectares of fertile land.
WADA has accomplished about 70% of its objectives for the "Rural
Development Center", which includes playgrounds, theatres,
day-care center, capacity training and production center for women,
multi-purpose hall and a local library. The programmes have gone
a long way in building women's capacity to respond to day-to-day
challenges. Agro-food products were cultivated and handcraft business
started. Their products are sold locally as well as exported (total
sales in 2001 were US$ 50,000). Educational and training programmes
have been conducted for women in the areas of health care, environment
protection and tourism promotion.
WADA collaborated with organizations representing various sectors
of the community to help solve pressing problems. The NGO works
with Creative Associates (USAID), Union Cities, CBOs, school representatives
and the municipality. WADA is also a member of the '' Lebanese Women's
Council'' whose basic principle is to advocate gender equality and
raise legal awareness on women's rights.
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Partnership in Service Delivery for Sustainable Rural Water
Provision in South Africa
South Africa's Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) initiated
a Community Water Supply and Sanitation Programme, which focuses
on the delivery of water and sanitation to rural populations, previously
disadvantaged by apartheid. Initiated in 1997, DWAF appointed a
single contractor known as Programme Implementation Agents (PIA)
for each province using a competitive tender process to carry out
the implementation of water and sanitation projects. A key component
of the contracts is the Build, Operate, Train and Transfer (BoTT)
that is designed to empower community members while ensuring sustainability
of the projects. The BoTT contract is an adapted version of the
contract for Turnkey Projects and facilitates for the transfer of
many client responsibilities to the PIA. The PIA complements existing
resources by bringing in additional capacity and provides the provinces
with an integrated team for all phases of a project. Capacity building
in the state and the community is a key element of the PIA responsibilities
and the community retains key decision making responsibility.
The contract places emphasis on the partnership required between
the PIA, the Department, Local Government and the community. The
state provides the capital for infrastructure as well as setting
the overall planning and delivery objectives. In addition the PIA
provides the continuity of responsibility to take the project through
its full cycle from initiation through construction, sustainable
operation and maintenance. The PIA has the contractual responsibility
to empower and train the local authority and community to take over
the scheme within a prescribed period. This ensures that local government
and the community are the ultimate beneficiaries of the programme
as the schemes are transferred to them. DWAF is in the process of
adapting the BoTT programme to suit local government requirements
by addressing such issues as decentralization and transfer of responsibility
for projects to local authorities. The BoTT programme in the four
provinces has provided water to approximately 4,000,000 people.
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Support to the Creation of Rural Micro-enterprise development
in Morocco
Water supply has always been a problem in rural areas and Morocco
is no exception. Traditional supply methods don't work because large
water supply companies are not interested in the low returns and
margins involved. In 1996, the national office for drinking water
began an initiative for rural water supply based on establishment
of community -based micro-enterprises. This involves provision of
micro-credit and training of young agents in technical and management
skills for operations and maintenance, assistance in legal and administrative
procedures for registering enterprises to access credit and marketing
as well as other forms of assistance during an initial two-year
start-up period.
Since 1990, micro enterprises have been installed each providing
10 to 15 jobs for local youth in rural areas in Morocco. A pilot
project initiated in collaboration with UNDP and involving women-operated
enterprises was also implemented focusing on quality control aspects
and providing useful lessons on how best to mainstream and promote
such enterprises. Other lessons have been applied to decentralize
and simplify contracting and procurement procedures. The sustainability
of the initiative is evidenced by growth of initial revolving fund,
which is now being used for micro-enterprise start-ups in other
sectors.
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Development of Informal Financial Institutions, Tashkent,
Uzbekistan
The Association of Business Women of Uzbekistan was established
with the aim to improve the status of women living in Uzbekistan
and achieve economic empowerment of the population living in rural
areas. In Uzbekistan, women make up 51% of the total population
and 45.1% of the workforce. During the country’s economic
transition, unemployment levels were high affecting the entire population
and more so women. In 1997, the government halted the process of
liberalization; foreign currency conversion was cancelled; governmental
management of export and import operations and a strict system of
taxation were introduced. The changes in the macro-economic policy
resulted in feminization of poverty with women accounting for over
90 % of the unemployed persons; gender inequality in access to social
services, labor-market and financial resources and a financial/bank
system that did not support growth of the private sector.
To address this situation, the Association launched the “Integrated
Program on Improvement of the Situation with Women in Rural Areas
of Uzbekistan.” Taking into account the peculiarities of the
rural Uzbek woman: low mobility; part time employment orientation;
desire to work not far from home and prevalence of gender stereotypes,
the program includes: education modules on legal issues; job training;
professional development,;involvement of women in micro-finance
and the establishment of credit unions. A "Legal integrated
literacy of women" program was introduced to empower women.
This programme was deemed necessary to counter the then existing
stereotype that depicted women as being mere servants to their husbands
without any rights. The Association partnered with Winrock International,
USAID\Eurasia Fund and a network of local NGOs.
Over 12,000 women have been trained and 2,500 business women now
have access to micro-credit.
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The Pride of Place Program, Australia
Australia has a Federal system of government. State Government is
the middle level of 3 tiers of Government: Federal, State and Local.
Victoria is the smallest and most densely populated state in Australia
with a population of 5 million. Melbourne is the capital of Victoria
and is dominated by the Yarra river. The Pride of Place Program
was initiated to spread the benefits of good strategic planning
and urban design to the whole of Victoria, in response to the visible
decline of many suburban, regional and rural centres, and inspired
by the successful urban revitalisation of central Melbourne.
State grants encourage Councils, working with their communities
and urban design professionals, to develop visions and strategies
for lively, economically sustainable, attractive and safe local
centres. Councils are assisted to manage change, such as development
pressures or industry decline, by reinforcing the attractiveness,
unique character and cultural heritage of local centres. Successful
applicants receive a Letter of Offer, and Terms and Conditions of
the grant and this is important, to reduce the risk to the State
of Councils defaulting on agreements after receiving funding. Projects
have generated high levels of community support and pride through
consultative and inclusive design processes. The Program fosters
goodwill between the State Government, Councils and local communities.
The projects also promote sustainable development, through the development
of long-term strategies to manage global and local changes. The
development of attractive towns and cities helps to retain and increase
resident populations, and to attract more visitors.
Many projects in rural and regional locations have provided or strengthened
existing recreation and tourist attractions, protecting the delicate
balance between natural flora and fauna, and the intrusion of people
through limiting access to protected areas, creating elevated boardwalks,
and enhancing environmental awareness with signage at key points.
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Rural sustainable development project in the Valdorba district,
Spain
This practice which began in 1990 is based in Valdorba in the Navarre
Region of Spain. The population of Spain is 42.7 million (official
figure, 2003), with a GNI per capita of US $14,580 (World Bank,
2002). Valdorba was characterised by serious demographic decline,
emigration and an economy based on subsidised agriculture and fisheries,
where maintaining and servicing 13 villages and managing their natural
resources was an almost impossible task. The aim of the initiative
was to promote local economic development through the rational use
of local environmental resources.
Faced with a non-sustainable farming-based economy dependent on
EU subsidies, alternative crops were considered, including truffles,
aromatic plants and vegetables. Depopulation and aging of the population
is being countered through social action policies. This was achieved
through provision of improved infrastructure which has encouraged
local people to stay on and attracted young families. Dependence
on other urban areas for employment is gradually decreasing following
the creation of local sources of income, including local enterprises,
rural accommodation, catering, hunting and the services sector.
A notable project is the sustainable eco-tourism which has emerged
as the most suitable option for the valley’s needs. Valdorba
mushrooms are exploited through sustainable tourism and/or business
models, which have been a success. The truffle fairs held to date
have received media coverage that reached over three million people.
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EnREDando jóvenes para el Desarrollo (Involving young
people in Development). Argentina.
Argentina had a population 37,031,802 in 2000 and this is expected
to grow by 12 % to 41,473,702 people by 2018. In the provinces of
Jujuy, Misiones, Buenos Aires and San Juan, policies related to
youth development were lacking especially in terms of skills development.
It was especially difficult for young people to gain space and participate
in the community’s institutions. This led to massive exodus
of young people to urban centres and resulting in the premature
ageing of small communities.
The NET Programme aims to involve young people in local development
by developing their capacity to undertake needs assessment and to
appropriately respond to issues that are identified. The programme
builds the capacity of young people by training them to plan and
manage different projects that improve the quality of life. This
programme is a synergy between different tiers of government as
well as among different sections of the organized communities. It
consists of an open examination of local development project proposals,
an offshoot of the educational process in which groups of young
people belonging to community’s organizations from different
cities and towns participate. Successful proposals are given seed
funding after proving that they will be financially sustainable
in the long run.
The training process involves non-formal education that has its
basis on two different approaches: attending training sessions and
a long distance process of education. The main aims of these projects
are focused on promoting and establishing youth networks; building
of human capacity to plan and manage development projects; encouraging
and promoting communication between young people and their communities
as a strategy to build participation; and maintaining an information
system on the capacities possessed by various youth and members
of the community.
Among achievements in the three provinces of Argentina: Misiones,
Jujuy and Buenos Aires: approximately 300 groups of young people
have participated so far in the programme while a further 1,000
young people have been trained; close to 6,000 young people have
been directly involved in various programmes that range from health
education to social and cultural programmes. Close to 34 municipalities
have collaborated and helped sustain the programme.
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A Green Path to Sustainable Development of Marginal Drylands, Iran
Iran, population 68.9 million and per capita income of US $1,720,
covers an area of 636,296 sq. miles. Oil exports account for around
80% of foreign exchange earnings as well as non-oil exports such
as carpets. The Gareh Bygone Plain, a 6,000-hectare sandy desert
in southern Iran annually receives 150mm of rain as opposed to 2860mm
of ‘Class A’ pan evaporation. Freshwater scarcity, poor
rangeland, and dust storms had caused migration of some nomads-turned-farmers
from the Gareh Bygone Plain. The remaining women and children had
to walk up to 6-km a day to fetch water resulting in back pain and
miscarriages for the women and the lower school attendance for the
children.
The initiative addresses the vicious cycle of poverty, desertification,
and drought affecting the nomads in the Gareh Bygone Plains of Iran.
The main objective of the initiative was desertification control
through floodwater spreading for the artificial recharge of groundwater.
Other objectives include planting of shade trees and fodder bushes
as live windbreaks; deposition of the suspended load onto the moving
sand; and provision of fuelwood which would discourage people from
cutting trees and removing bushes on the watersheds, thus helping
soil and water conservation. All of these activities, along with
hiring of laborers and watchmen, would reverse the tide of migration.
Floodwater spreading has transformed a desert into verdant scenery.
The program introduced programs for reforestation, community education
and mobilization. A collaboration of central government, local authority,
parastatals, non-government organizations, community-based organizations
and academic institutions provided knowledge, resources and technology.
After five years, results show that 8 million cubic meters of floodwater
provided ample freshwater, fuel wood, and employment opportunities,
and reduced work burden on women and children. The irrigated area
has increased from 147 ha to 1,193 ha and this has provided income
for 250 operators, and 95 hired labourers. Moreover, extra employment
has been provided due to the annual production of 10 tons of honey.
Its success led to a government policy adopting aquifer management
as a program and allocated annual budget. It demonstrated the potential
of annually harvesting 50 cubic kms of floodwaters could control
desertification on 14 million hectares, supply irrigation water
for 6 million hectares and provide jobs for 4 million people.
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Sand Dams of Kitui: Providing Potable & Production Water
in Semi-Arid Lands of Kitui District, Kenya
Kitui district, with a population of 575,512 and per capita income
of US$ 26, has agriculture as the main economic activity. The district
is repeatedly hit by drought as it lacks infrastructure for retaining
water in the catchment areas, as 80% of the received precipitation
is lost as surface run-off. As a result, water resources are few
and far apart in dry periods and people walk up to twenty kilometers
to get water. The district suffers from food insecurity and has
been a net importer of food.
The sand dam programme, undertaken by Sahelian Solutions Foundation
Kenya (SASOL) aimed at increasing the availability of water by reducing
the distance to water sources and avail adequate water for domestic
and productive use within two kilometers of every household. SASOL
works with local communities towards the alleviation of the persistent
water problem by organizing and informing the community members
about sand dams and their role in the construction. The community
identifies sites and decides on the total number of sites it is
capable of developing depending on availability of enough stones,
sand and water. The site committee plans for activities at the site,
supervises and monitors the work in progress; maintains site records,
mobilizes the required local resources, stores and protects resources
obtained externally, maintains technical staff assigned; and assures
compliance of rules and regulations developed by the community.
The development of sand dams and water holding structures, terraces
and contour bands on the land, has increased productive shallow
wells from 2 to 39 to date. In total 376 sand dam sites have been
developed in Kitui to date bringing water closer to households serving
up to 200,000 inhabitants. The time saving on water chores for these
inhabitants has been reduced from 5-10 hours to ½ - 1 hour
in these areas as indicated by the community in Tungutu during their
project impact assessment. This has boosted food security and economic
activities have sprung up, such as bee keeping, brick manufacture
and growing of vegetables and trees. This has improved the people’s
livelihoods. Women and children are the principle beneficiaries
in this development as they usually bear the burden of water chores.
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